Judaism: Key Beliefs and the Covenant

Judaism's understanding of God is foundational to all its beliefs and practices. Several key attributes define how Jews understand God.

God as One — the absolute unity and uniqueness of God is affirmed in the Shema, the central Jewish declaration of faith, recited twice daily: "Hear, O Israel: the Lord our God, the Lord is One" (Deuteronomy 6:4). This is not merely numerical oneness but the claim that God is unique, indivisible, and without equal or partner.

Attribute	Meaning
God as One	Unique and indivisible — monotheism is the bedrock of Jewish belief
God as Creator	God created the universe from nothing (ex nihilo); creation reflects God's wisdom and power; humanity is created in God's image (tzelem Elohim)
God as Law-Giver and Judge	God revealed the Torah (divine law) and holds human beings accountable for their actions; justice is a core divine attribute
God as Loving and Merciful	Despite God's justice, Judaism emphasises God's chesed (loving-kindness) and compassion; God forgives those who repent

The Shekhinah — the divine presence — refers to God's presence as it can be experienced in the world. While God is transcendent (beyond human comprehension), the Shekhinah represents God's immanence — the sense of God's presence dwelling with the Jewish people. The Shekhinah was associated with the Temple in Jerusalem; after its destruction, Jewish teaching holds that the Shekhinah accompanies the Jewish people wherever they go. It is sometimes described as a feminine aspect of the divine.

Judaism does not have a single, fixed doctrine of the afterlife — views vary between Orthodox, Reform, and Liberal communities.

Beliefs about life after death:

View	Held by	Detail
Physical resurrection	Orthodox Judaism	The dead will be physically raised at the end of days; the soul is reunited with the body; this is followed by divine judgement
Spiritual afterlife	Many Reform/Liberal Jews	The soul continues after death in a spiritual sense; some emphasise the immortality of the soul rather than bodily resurrection
Focus on this world	Some progressive Jews	Emphasis is placed on living ethically now; views on resurrection are held more metaphorically or are less central

All traditions affirm that human beings are morally accountable to God and that their lives have eternal significance. Judgement — the idea that God evaluates how humans have lived — is a shared element across denominations.

The Messiah (Mashiach, meaning 'anointed one') is a figure Jews believe will be sent by God to bring an age of peace, justice, and the fulfilment of God's purposes on earth.

View	Orthodox Judaism	Liberal/Reform Judaism
Nature of the Messiah	A future human king from the line of David — not divine	Some interpret the Messiah as a Messianic Age rather than an individual
Role	To rebuild the Temple, gather Jews back to Israel, bring world peace, and lead all nations to acknowledge God	To inspire humanity toward justice, peace, and the perfection of the world (tikkun olam)
Importance	Central and literal belief — prayers for the Messiah's coming are part of daily liturgy	The concept is reinterpreted; some focus on human responsibility to bring about the Messianic Age

A covenant (brit) in Judaism is a binding agreement between God and the Jewish people — a relationship of mutual commitment and obligation. The Covenant defines Jewish identity and purpose.

The Covenant with Abraham (Genesis 12:1-3):

"The Lord said to Abram, 'Go from your country, your people and your father's household to the land I will show you. I will make you into a great nation, and I will bless you; I will make your name great, and you will be a blessing. I will bless those who bless you, and whoever curses you I will curse; and all peoples on earth will be blessed through you.'" — Genesis 12:1-3

This covenant has three central elements:

1. The promised land — God promises Abraham and his descendants the land of Canaan (later Israel)
2. A great nation — Abraham's descendants will become a great people chosen by God
3. A blessing to all nations — through Abraham, all the peoples of the earth will be blessed

The Covenant with Abraham was sealed with the rite of circumcision (brit milah) — the physical sign of the covenant between God and Abraham's descendants (Genesis 17). This remains a central practice in Jewish life today.

The significance of this covenant: it establishes that the Jewish people have a unique and purposeful relationship with God — not for their own benefit alone, but as a vehicle for God's purposes in the world.

The Covenant at Sinai deepened and formalised the relationship between God and the Jewish people. After the Exodus from Egypt, Moses led the Israelites to Mount Sinai, where God revealed the Torah — including the Ten Commandments (Aseret HaDibrot, Exodus 20:1-17).

The Ten Commandments fall into two categories:

Commandments	Focus	Examples
1–4	Duties toward God	No other gods; no idols; not taking God's name in vain; keeping the Sabbath (Shabbat)
5–10	Duties toward other people	Honouring parents; not murdering; not committing adultery; not stealing; not bearing false witness; not coveting

This structure mirrors the two categories of mitzvot (commandments) — those between people and God, and those between people and each other.

The importance of the Sinai Covenant:

• It establishes the Torah as divine law — not merely human legislation
• It gives the Jewish people their vocation: to live as a "kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (Exodus 19:6), modelling a God-centred way of life for the world
• It creates a communal and national identity based on shared obligation and divine purpose
• It is the basis of all Jewish law (halacha) and ethics

The Sinai Covenant is understood in Judaism not as a burden but as an expression of God's love — choosing the Jewish people and entrusting them with the most significant responsibility.

Judaism is fundamentally an ethical religion — the relationship with God is expressed primarily through how one treats other people and the world.

Justice (tzedek) is one of the highest values in Judaism. The Torah repeatedly commands justice: "Justice, justice shall you pursue" (Deuteronomy 16:20). Both personal honesty and systemic fairness in society are required. The prophets — including Isaiah and Amos — condemned economic exploitation and social injustice as violations of the covenant with God.

Tikkun olam — 'repairing the world' — is the concept that Jews have a responsibility to work toward a better, more just world. This reflects the understanding that creation is not yet complete and that human beings are partners with God in perfecting it. Tikkun olam is invoked in Jewish social justice activism, charitable work, and environmental responsibility.

Charity and kindness (tzedakah and chesed): Tzedakah (charity) is not optional generosity but an obligation — giving to those in need is a duty rooted in the covenant. Chesed (loving-kindness) refers to acts of genuine compassion that go beyond legal obligation.

Pikuach Nefesh — the sanctity and saving of human life — is a foundational principle: "Do not stand idly by the blood of your neighbour" (Leviticus 19:16). In Jewish law, preserving human life (pikuach nefesh) takes precedence over almost all other commandments. If observing a commandment would endanger life, the commandment is suspended — with very few exceptions. This principle is central to Jewish medical ethics and has wide-ranging practical implications.

The 613 mitzvot (commandments) — 248 positive ('do this') and 365 negative ('do not do this') — constitute the comprehensive framework of Jewish law derived from the Torah. They govern every area of life: worship, diet, business ethics, treatment of others, agriculture, and more.

The relationship between free will and the mitzvot is fundamental:

• Judaism holds that human beings possess genuine free will — the capacity to choose between good and evil
• The mitzvot are not imposed on beings without choice, but given to those who can freely obey or disobey
• Obeying the mitzvot is an act of love and loyalty toward God, not mechanical compliance
• The rabbis teach that the yetzer ha-tov (inclination toward good) and yetzer ha-ra (inclination toward evil) coexist in every person; the task of life is to allow the good inclination to prevail

Mitzvot between man and God (bein adam la-Makom) — commandments governing the relationship with God: Shabbat observance, keeping kosher, prayer, festivals. These express worship, reverence, and devotion.

Mitzvot between man and man (bein adam la-chavero) — commandments governing relationships with other people: not stealing, not lying, paying fair wages, visiting the sick, burying the dead. The Talmud teaches that the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur) cannot atone for wrongs done to another person — these require direct repentance and reconciliation with the person harmed.

Category	Examples	Importance
Between man and God	Sabbath, prayer, kashrut, festivals	Maintain the covenantal relationship; express devotion and holiness
Between man and man	Charity, honesty, care for the vulnerable	Essential for a just community; cannot be replaced by ritual observance alone

Both categories are necessary — they are complementary aspects of a whole Jewish life.

1. Saying Jews believe the Messiah is divine

In mainstream Judaism — including Orthodox — the Messiah is a human figure, a king from the line of David. The idea of a divine Messiah is not part of Jewish belief. This is a significant distinction from Christian theology and must be stated clearly in exam answers.

2. Treating all Jewish views on the afterlife as identical

Orthodox, Reform, and Liberal Jews hold different views. An exam answer that presents only physical resurrection as 'what Jews believe' is incomplete. Acknowledge that views diverge, especially on bodily resurrection vs spiritual immortality.

3. Describing the 613 mitzvot as merely 'rules'

The mitzvot are the covenantal obligations of a people who freely accepted the Torah at Sinai. They are acts of love, worship, and justice — not arbitrary rules. Framing them as a burden misrepresents Jewish theology.

4. Confusing tzedakah with voluntary charity

Tzedakah is a legal obligation in Jewish law — it comes from the same root as tzedek (justice). Giving to those in need is not optional generosity but a duty. This is an important distinction in exam answers on Jewish ethics.

5. Ignoring Pikuach Nefesh in ethics questions

Pikuach Nefesh — the duty to preserve life — is one of the most cited principles in Jewish ethics, especially in medical ethics questions. Omitting it from answers on Jewish responses to sanctity of life is a significant gap.