Food Security: Insecurity, Strategies and Sustainability

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO definition).

Global calorie intake patterns:

Region	Average daily calorie intake	Situation
North America, Europe	~3,400–3,500 kcal/person	Overconsumption; obesity epidemic; significant food waste
South and Southeast Asia	~2,500–2,800 kcal/person	Generally adequate; improving rapidly; inequalities within region
Sub-Saharan Africa	~2,100–2,300 kcal/person	Widespread undernutrition; ~240 million undernourished (2022)
Minimum adequate intake	~2,100–2,500 kcal/person	Below this = undernutrition; calorie deficit affects health, development, and productivity

The scale of food insecurity: approximately 735 million people were chronically undernourished in 2022 (FAO), a figure that has risen since 2019 due to conflict, climate shocks, and the economic impacts of COVID-19. A further 2 billion people experience moderate or severe food insecurity — lacking consistent access to adequate food.

Why is food consumption increasing globally?

• Population growth: world population is projected to reach ~9.7 billion by 2050 (from ~8.1 billion in 2024); more people require more food
• Rising incomes: as incomes increase in NEEs (China, India, Brazil), people shift from starchy staple diets toward more varied diets including more meat, dairy, and processed foods; producing 1 kg of beef requires approximately 8 kg of grain feed — higher meat consumption dramatically increases demand for total calories
• Urbanisation: urban diets differ from rural ones — more variety, more processed foods, more meat; urbanisation in NEEs drives dietary transition
• Biofuels: growing demand for biofuels (ethanol from maize and sugarcane; biodiesel from palm oil and soy) diverts food crops into energy production, reducing food supply and increasing prices

Several physical and human factors determine whether countries can produce enough food.

Physical factors:

• Climate: adequate rainfall, temperature, and growing seasons are prerequisites for most crops; drought-prone regions (Sahel, Horn of Africa) regularly suffer harvest failures; climate change is shifting growing zones and increasing the frequency of extreme weather events that damage crops
• Water stress: irrigation accounts for approximately 70% of global freshwater withdrawal; in water-stressed regions (Middle East, North Africa, parts of India), water scarcity limits irrigation and crop production
• Pests and disease: locusts, stem borers, armyworms, fungal diseases (wheat rust, coffee leaf rust), and viral diseases can devastate harvests; desert locust swarms in East Africa (2019–2021) destroyed crops across ten countries, affecting tens of millions of people
• Land degradation: soil erosion, salinisation from over-irrigation, desertification, and waterlogging reduce agricultural productivity; approximately 25–30% of global agricultural land is classified as degraded

Human factors:

• Poverty and access: food insecurity is often not caused by insufficient global food production (global supply exceeds minimum calorie needs for all 8 billion people) but by insufficient income to purchase food or lack of infrastructure to distribute it; the poor spend 50–70% of income on food in some LICs
• Technology: high-yield crop varieties, synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, and irrigation infrastructure have dramatically increased productivity in HICs and some NEEs; countries without access to these technologies produce far less per hectare
• Conflict: war and political instability disrupt food production (farmers leave fields), destroy food supply chains (roads, markets, silos), and create mass displacement; conflicts in Syria, Yemen, South Sudan, and Ethiopia have caused acute food crises
• Globalisation: global food trade means that one country's harvest failure can increase food prices worldwide; poor countries that are net food importers are particularly vulnerable to global price spikes (as seen in 2007–08 and 2022 food price crises)

Food insecurity has cascading consequences for individuals, communities, and nations.

Physical health:

• Undernutrition: insufficient calorie intake causes stunting (low height for age — affects cognitive development), wasting (low weight for height — dangerous in young children), and increased susceptibility to infection
• Micronutrient deficiency: lack of specific vitamins and minerals even when calorie intake is adequate — iron deficiency anaemia (affects ~2 billion globally), vitamin A deficiency (a leading cause of preventable blindness in children), iodine deficiency
• Severely malnourished children face permanent cognitive impairment and increased risk of death from otherwise survivable infections

Economic and social effects:

• Hungry people are less productive workers; food insecurity reduces economic output and perpetuates poverty
• When harvests fail, farmers sell assets (livestock, tools, land) — depleting their ability to recover in future seasons
• Rising food prices destabilise societies; the 2007–08 global food price crisis contributed to political unrest in over 30 countries; the Arab Spring (2010–11) was partly triggered by bread price increases in Egypt and Tunisia

Political instability:

• Food insecurity drives migration and conflict; resource competition over land, water, and pasture is a significant factor in the Sahel conflicts (Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso)

Irrigation:

• Supplying water to crops artificially, extending agricultural land and enabling multiple harvests per year
• The High Aswan Dam (Egypt, opened 1971) created Lake Nasser (500 km long) and enabled year-round irrigation of Nile Valley farmland — Egypt's agricultural output increased significantly; but the dam traps the Nile's nutrient-rich silt behind it, reducing natural soil fertility downstream and requiring more fertiliser use
• Drip irrigation (extra context — beyond AQA 8035 spec) delivers water directly to plant roots, reducing water use by up to 50% compared to surface flooding, but is expensive to install

Aeroponics and hydroponics:

• Growing plants in nutrient-rich water (hydroponics) or misted air (aeroponics) without soil; uses up to 95% less water than conventional field growing; enables food production in buildings, deserts, and other non-agricultural environments; high initial capital cost; most viable for high-value salad crops and herbs
• Commercial example: Thanet Earth (Kent, UK) — one of Europe's largest hydroponic greenhouse complexes; produces tomatoes, cucumbers, and peppers year-round for UK supermarkets

Biotechnology and GM crops:

• Genetic modification (GM) involves inserting genes from one organism into another to produce desired traits:
  • Bt crops (maize, cotton): genes from Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria produce a natural insecticide within the plant, reducing pesticide spraying and increasing yields
  • Drought-resistant varieties: engineered to survive lower rainfall; particularly relevant for sub-Saharan Africa; Wema (Water Efficient Maize for Africa) programme has developed drought-tolerant maize distributed to smallholder farmers in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Mozambique, and South Africa
  • Golden Rice: engineered to produce beta-carotene (converted to Vitamin A in the body); intended to address vitamin A deficiency in rice-dependent populations; regulatory approval granted in Bangladesh (2021)
• Objections to GM crops: concerns about biodiversity loss (GM crops outcompeting wild relatives), corporate control of food supply (GM seed patents owned by Monsanto/Bayer, Syngenta), unknown long-term health effects, and cross-contamination of non-GM crops
• GM crops remain banned for growing in the EU; the UK is reviewing its regulations post-Brexit

Appropriate technology:

• Technology suited to local conditions, affordable and repairable by local communities
• Example: SunCulture solar-powered drip irrigation pumps (Kenya): small solar panels power a water pump and drip irrigation system; farmers in arid regions can irrigate smallholdings without access to grid electricity or expensive diesel; SunCulture operates in Kenya, Uganda, and Ethiopia — increasing yields and reducing water use simultaneously

Example: The Green Revolution in India (1960s–1980s) — large-scale agricultural development:

• The Green Revolution introduced high-yield variety (HYV) seeds (dwarf wheat and rice varieties developed by Norman Borlaug and IRRI), synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, and mechanised irrigation to South Asian and Mexican agriculture
• India: wheat production tripled between 1965 and 1985; India transformed from a food-deficit country reliant on US food aid to a food-exporting country; Punjab and Haryana became the "breadbasket of India"
• Benefits: prevented predicted famines in India and Pakistan; raised rural incomes; fed a rapidly growing population
• Costs: HYV seeds require expensive inputs (fertiliser, pesticides, irrigation) that favour wealthier farmers; marginalised smallholders; increased water consumption contributed to groundwater depletion (Punjab's aquifer is now critically depleted); heavy pesticide use damaged biodiversity and human health; social disruption as smaller farms were consolidated

Strategies to produce food in ways that can be maintained long-term without depleting environmental resources.

Organic farming:

• Avoids synthetic fertilisers and pesticides; relies on crop rotation, composting, and biological pest control; promotes soil health and biodiversity; reduces chemical run-off into water bodies
• Typically yields 20–30% less per hectare than conventional farming; higher production costs mean organic food prices are higher; global organic farmland covers approximately 3% of total agricultural area

Permaculture:

• Designing food-producing systems that mimic natural ecosystems; integrating trees, shrubs, crops, and animals in self-sustaining combinations; low external inputs; high biodiversity; very labour-intensive; primarily suited to small-scale and subsistence contexts

Urban farming:

• Growing food within cities: rooftop gardens, community allotments, vertical farms, and urban orchards; reduces food miles; connects urban residents with food production; limited scale but growing rapidly (particularly in food-insecure cities in LICs)
• Example: La Via Campesina urban growing cooperatives in Havana, Cuba (extra context — beyond AQA 8035 spec)

Seasonal and locally sourced food:

• Buying food grown locally and in season reduces food miles, packaging, and refrigeration energy; supports local farmers; reduces carbon footprint of food consumption
• UK food labelling now indicates country of origin; "buy local" campaigns (British Food Fortnight; Red Tractor scheme) encourage seasonal purchasing

Fish quotas and sustainable fishing:

• Overfishing has depleted global fish stocks (approximately 35% of wild fish stocks are overfished — FAO 2022); fish quotas (legal limits on catch volumes) aim to allow stock recovery
• Example: EU Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) sets annual Total Allowable Catches (TACs) for North Sea species (cod, haddock, plaice); UK established its own fishing quota system post-Brexit; cod stocks in the North Sea have shown partial recovery since 2000 under quota management

Example: local sustainable food scheme in an LIC or NEE:

Thandiwe Community Garden, Malawi: The Thandiwe ("beloved" in Chichewa) model, supported by CARE International, trains women's groups in Malawi in conservation agriculture (minimum tillage, mulching, crop rotation, composting) combined with kitchen gardens growing diverse vegetables:

• Women's groups collectively grow maize, legumes (cowpea, groundnut), and vegetables on small plots using rainwater harvesting and compost fertilisation
• No expensive inputs required; techniques learned by community from community — appropriate technology
• Groups sell surplus at local markets; income provides school fees, healthcare, and further farm investment
• Malawi's government has incorporated conservation agriculture into national agricultural extension programmes

1. Confusing food security with food supply

Food security is about reliable access to sufficient and nutritious food — it is a people-centred concept. Food supply is the quantity of food available. A country can have high food supply but poor food security if the food is unaffordable or inaccessible to the poor (as in India and Brazil, both food exporters with significant undernutrition).

2. Treating GM crops as entirely positive or entirely negative

GM crops can increase yields and reduce pesticide use (benefits). But they raise concerns about biodiversity, corporate control, cross-contamination, and long-term safety. A complete answer presents both sides with specific examples (Wema drought-tolerant maize in Africa = benefit; Monsanto seed patents restricting farmer choice = limitation).

3. Describing irrigation as having no disadvantages

Irrigation increases food production (benefit). But it can cause waterlogging and salinisation of soils (reducing long-term fertility), and over-abstraction of rivers and groundwater (reducing future water availability). The Aral Sea disaster (Soviet irrigation diverted the rivers feeding the Aral Sea; by 1990 it had lost around 40% of its area; the South Aral Sea had largely disappeared by the 2010s) and depletion of Punjab's aquifer are the most extreme examples. Note these trade-offs.

4. Not naming a specific large-scale development scheme

"Large dams and irrigation schemes help farmers grow more food" earns minimal marks. "The High Aswan Dam enabled year-round irrigation of Nile Valley farmland, tripling Egypt's cotton and food crop output, but trapping Nile silt reduces downstream soil fertility" demonstrates specific knowledge that earns higher marks. Name and locate a specific scheme.

5. Forgetting fish quotas as a sustainable strategy

Fish quotas (legal catch limits) are explicitly named in the spec as a sustainable food supply strategy. Students often omit fisheries entirely. Mention the EU Common Fisheries Policy, the problem of overfishing, and the evidence of partial stock recovery under quota management.